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Poor Women in Rich Countries$
Poor Women in Rich Countries: The Feminization of Poverty Over the Life Course

Gertrude Schaffner Goldberg

Print publication date: 2009

Print ISBN-13: 9780195314304

Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: February 2010

DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195314304.001.0001

(p. 331 ) INDEX

Source:
Poor Women in Rich Countries
Publisher:
Oxford University Press

(p. 331 ) INDEX

INDEX INDEX
African American freedom movement, 232
Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), 231, 232, 233, 239
Aide pour l’emploi d’une assistante maternelle agréé (AFEMA), 86
Allocation de garde d’enfant à domicile (AGED), 86
Allocation de parent isolé (API), 70, 73–74, 75, 86
and RMI, difference between, 74
Allocation de soutien familial (ASF), 70, 86
Allocation parentale d’éducation (APE), 86
Allocation personnalisée à l’autonomie (APA), 82, 86
American Association for Retired People (AARP), 253
Angel Plan (Japan), 215
Autonomie gérontologique—Groupe iso resource (AGGIR), 82, 86
Bank of Italy, 175
Survey of Household’s Income and Wealth, 175
Basic Law for a Gender-Equal Society (Japan), 217
Bayrou, François, 83
Beveridge, W., 311
Blair, Tony, 17
Bush, George W., 17, 231
Canada, 17, 151
Canada Child Tax Benefit (CCTB), 160
Canada/Quebec Pension Plans (C/QPP), 165, 166–167
Canadian Advisory Council on the Status of Women, 153
elderly, services for, 308–309
equal opportunity policies, 301
equality of women, 153–154
feminized poverty, 167
government spending, direction of, 152–153
Guara nteed Income Supplement (GIS), 166–167
immigrant lone mothers, 12
lone elderly women
benefits, role of
contributory benefits, 165
noncontributory benefits, 164–165
poverty rates, decline of, 166–167
private pensions and savings, 165–166
diversity, 162–163
policies for, 306
poverty of, 163–164, 272
seniors, support for, 162–163
lone mothers
child care, 161–162
child support, 162, 304
housing, 160–161
poverty of, 4
social assistance and unemployment insurance, 159–160
Low-Income Measure (LIM), 155
(p. 332 )
minimum-income guarantees, 310
National Action Committee for the Status of Women (NAC), 153
National Child Benefit Supplement (NCBS), 160
National Council of Welfare, 160
Old Age Security (OAS), 164–165, 166
paid work, poverty and, 156–159
poverty measurement in, 154–155
Low Income Cut-offs (LICOs), 154–155
Registered Retirement Savings Plans (RRSPs), 166
Royal Commission on the Status of Women, 153
social investment state, 153
social welfare state, 153
trade liberalization and labor market deregulation, 154
women, political resources of, 315
Canada Child Tax Benefit (CCTB), 160
Canada/Quebec Pension Plans (C/QPP), 165, 166–167
Canadian Advisory Council on the Status of Women, 153
Child care, 302–304, 321. See also individual countries
Child support, 304–305. See also individual countries
Child Welfare Law (Japan), 215
Childcare Tax Credit (United Kingdom), 133
Children:
effect of age on mothers’ employment, 43–45
social exclusion of, 18
Class, 77, 106, 152, 154, 235, 237–238, 253, 306, 320
Clinton, Bill, 17, 231
Clinton, Hillary, 231
Cohabitation, 38, 43
Commission for Equality and Human Rights (United Kingdom), 131
Commodification
de-commodification, 13, 278, 288, 312
forced, 288
re-commodification, 9
Comprehensive Survey of the Living Conditions, Health and Welfare of the people (Japan), 221
Comprehensive Survey of the Living conditions, Health and Welfare of the People (Japan), 210, 211
Conference on Family Issues of 1998, 74
Cutbacks, 9, 10, 11, 17, 231, 275, 313, 315, 322
Decent work, 312, 313
De-commodification, 13, 278, 288, 309, 312
De-familialization, 13, 267, 274, 276, 278, 309
Deprivation, 17–19
Dual-earner-dual-carer society, 14–15
Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) (United States), 10, 85, 239, 254, 290, 305, 310
Economic Policy Institute (EPI) (United States), 236
Elder care, 8–10, 321. See also individual countries
Elderly women. See also Lone elderly women; See also individual entries
economic disadvantages of, 6
EMILY’S List, 253
Employee Free Choice Act (United States), 302
Employment, 18. See also Underemployment; Unemployment Work; See also individual countries
full, 10–11, 29, 30, 32, 34, 35, 49, 104, 310–314
lone mothers and, 287
and welfare regimes, 288–289
Employment Free Choice Act, 302
Employment Retention and Advancement Demonstration Project (United Kingdom), 138
Equal Employment Opportunity Law (Japan), 217
Equal Opportunities Commission (United Kingdom), 131
Equal opportunity laws, 301–302
Equal rights women’s movement (United States), 252–253
Esping-Andersen, G., 13–14, 269, 274, 278, 288
Ethnicity, 7, 8, 66, 233, 235, 241, 243, 246, 282–283, 320. See also Race
European Union (EU), 35, 94, 115, 311, 317
Eurostat, 19, 269, 270, 275, 293, 294
Exceptionalism, 316–320
Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), 16, 97. See also Germany
Feminization of poverty, 3. See also individual countries
and feminized poverty, distinction between, 5
the term, 3, 4
(p. 333 ) Feminization of Poverty: Only in America? 3, 28, 156, 167, 232
Feminized poverty, 243, 278–281. See also individual countries
and feminization of poverty, distinction between, 5
single elderly women, factors of, 7–8
single mothers, factors of, 6–7
France, 61
aide pour l’emploi d’une assistante maternelle agréé (AFEMA), 86
allocation adulte handicapé , 73
allocation de garde d’enfant à domicile (AGED), 86
allocation de parent isolé (API), 70, 73–74, 75, 86
allocation de rentrée scolaire , 73
allocation de soutien familial (ASF), 70, 86
allocation parentale d’éducation (APE), 86
allocation personnalisée à l’autonomie (APA), 82, 86
autonomie gérontologique—Groupe iso resource (AGGIR), 82, 86
child care in, 303
contrat d’avenir , 76
“dependence on welfare” issue, 74
droits directs , 79
elderly
care of, 10
services for, 308
employment
full, 310, 311
family policies, 64–65
immigrant lone mothers, 12
Juppé plan, 74
lone elderly women, poverty of, 77–82, 272
age, gender and marital status, 80–81
level of income and, 78–82
risk of incapacity, chronic diseases or dependence, 81
senior workers, forced early retirement of, 81
lone mothers
cash benefits for, 305
child support, 305
poverty of, 4, 267
unemployment rate of, 11
lone mothers as vulnerable households, 66–67
poverty trap, 67–69
lone-parent families as vulnerable households, 65–66
policies, 72–77
poverty trap, 67, 69
minimum vieillesse , 78, 86
National Observatory on Poverty and Social Exclusion (2000), 75
pension de reversion , 65, 78, 79
poverty and precariousness, 62–64
prestation d’accueil du jeune enfant (PAJE), 86–87
prestation spécifique dépendance (PSD), 82, 87
prime pour l’emploi , 84
recent developments, 83–86
revenu de solidarité active (RSA), 84–85, 87
revenu minimum d’activité (RMA), 75–76, 87
revenu minimum d’insertion (RMI), 64, 70–72, 87
salaire minimum interprofessionnel de croissance (SMIC), 87
social transfers, 70
solo mothers, 5
Trente Glorieuses , 82
welfare state, 64–65
women, political resources of, 314–315
Full employment, 10–11, 29, 30, 32, 34, 35, 49, 104, 310–314. See also Employment; Work
Gender
equality, 29, 135
legislation, 131
support for, 115–116
equity
welfare regimes and, 14
gap in employment, 29, 30, 233–234, 266, 284, 288
model, in United States, 233
Gender Equality Duty (United Kingdom), 132
Gender essentialism, 320
German Democratic Republic (GDR), 97, See also Germany
Germany, 94
child care in, 303
elderly women
pension claims of
male norm as pension norm, 112–113
employment
full, 104, 311
gender gap in, 288
first pillar pension system, 114
gender equality, support for, 115–116
Gesetzliche Rentenversicherung (GRV), 108
Law on Part-Time Employment and Fixed-Term Contracts, 98
lone elderly women
migrants, 113–114
pension claims and poverty risks of, 109–111 (p. 334 )
access to occupational pensions, 110–111
future developments, 114
living alone, situation of, 111
own pension rights, 109
poverty, overcoming, 110
savings, 111
situation of living alone, 113
survivors’ pensions, 109–110
pension system, advantages and disadvantages for, 108–109
policies for, 308
lone mothers
advance maintenance policies for, 305
cash benefits for, 305
poverty rate of, 5
unemployment rate of, 11
Long Term Care Insurance, 13, 308
male breadwinner model, 97–100
poverty research in, 94–95
distribution and development, 95–97
theoretical concepts and available data, discrepancy between, 115
reunification of, 16
second pillar pension system, 114–115
social security in, 9
solo mothers, 5
future developments for, 107
high poverty risk of
educational level, 106
empirical findings, 101
insufficient cash benefits, 105–106
insufficient income from work, 103–104
insufficient parental and welfare state support, 104
unemployment and lack of public child care, 102–103
immigrant mothers, problems of, 106–107
Sozial Staat , 64
third pillar pension system, 114–115
welfare state, 10
women, political resources of, 315
Gesetzliche Rentenversicherung (GRV), 108, 109. See also Pension
Gini coefficient, 36, 95
Gray Panthers, 253
Homelessness, 193–194, 240
Home Responsibilities Protection (Britain), 307–308
Hopkins, H., 256
Household Economics Panel Survey (Japan), 208
Housing, 19, 160–161, 163, 192, 240, 306
Illegitimacy, 38
Immigration/immigrants:
education, 244–245
employment, 35, 47, 244–245
homelessness, 193
marital status, 190, 197
missing benefits, 245
lone mothers with children abroad, 190–191
lone mothers with children in Italy, 191–193
nativity, 96, 283–284
pension and disposable income, 48–49, 52, 54, 166
poverty and, 245–246
problem of, 106, 113–114
race/ethnicity, 49, 66, 282
social rights, 13, 33
International Labour Office, 63
Intersectionality, 320
Italy, 174
Bank of Italy, 175
cash benefits, for families, 182–183
cash attendance allowance, 183
cash carer’s allowance, 183
child care, 10
child care in, 303–304
Constitutional Reform of 2001, 184
elderly
care of, 10
income transfers to, 184
services for, 308
employment
full, 313
gender gap in, 288–289
homeless women in, 193–194
immigrant lone mothers, 12, 188–190
labor market patriarchy, 179–182
male and female employment, gap between, 180
women, education of, 180–182
lone elderly women, 187–188
lone mothers
cash benefits for, 305
immigrant
with children abroad, 190–191
with Italian children, 191–193
poverty of, 269
unemployment rate of, 11
(p. 335 )
married mothers, high poverty risk of, 184–185
National Italian Labour Force Survey, 182
poor lone parents, 186–187
poverty of, 174–179
composition of, 176–178
rates of, 174–176
Social Security system, 182–183
welfare state familism, 179–182
Japan, 17, 202
Ad Hoc Committee on Administrative Reform, 213
Angel Plan, 215
Basic Law for a Gender-Equal Society, 217
child care, 215–217
kindergartens, 216
licensed child-care centers, 215, 216–217
Nintei-Kodomo-en, 216
unlicensed child-care centers, 216
Child Rearing Allowance, 212, 214
Child Welfare Law, 215
company society system, 203–204, 207
recession and, 205
women’s employment, effect on, 205–206
Comprehensive Survey of the Living Conditions, Health and Welfare of the people, 221
Comprehensive Survey of the Living Conditions, Health and Welfare of the people, 210, 211
Economic Surveys Japan 2006 , 203
elderly women, 218–220
policies for, 218–219
services for, 308
employment
full, 311
gender gap in, 289
Equal Employment Opportunity Law, 217
equal opportunity policies, 217, 302
families, adaptive behavior of, 206–207
Gold Plan, 218
Household Economics Panel Survey, 208
immigrant lone mothers, 12
Japanese-Style Welfare Society, 204–205, 207, 213
Labor Standards Law, 217
Law for Child Care, 217
Law for Child Care Leave, 217
Law for Temporary Workers, 217
Law on Special Employment Support Measures for Single Mothers, 214–215
Loans for Single-Mother Families Program, 213
lone elderly women
low income and, 219–220
poverty of, 272
lone mothers
employment status and poverty rates of, 208–209
poverty of, 4, 269
Long Term Care Insurance (LCTI), 218–219
Long Term Health Insurance, 318
Ministry of Education, 216
Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (MHLW), 210, 213, 214, 215, 216, 219
National Federation of Insurance Association, 219
National Medical Insurance System, 204
National Pension System, 204
National Survey of Family Income and Expenditure, 208, 220, 223
National Survey of Single-Mother Households, 209, 210–211
Part-Time Worker Law, 217
pension system, women and, 221
Policy Outline for The Longevity Society, 218
poverty prevention in, 317–318
“Proposal for a Japanese-Style Welfare Society”, 204
Public Assistance Law, 212
“Recommendations Based on Administrative Evaluation and Supervision of Employee Pension Insurance Schemes”, 223
single mother families
policies, history of, 209–215
social allowances, 212
Social Insurance Agency, 222
Special Survey on Employment Trends, 206
Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology, 220
University of Michigan, 220
“U.S, Feminization of Poverty Not Seen in Japan”, 202
welfare state, 10
women, political resources of, 315
workfare system, 214–215, 305
work-only system, 214, 305
Japanese-Style Welfare Society, 204–205, 207–213
Justice, 38
(p. 336 ) Koizumi, Junichiro, 203
Labor market conditions
activity gap and unemployment rate, 284
lone mothers and employment, 287
low wages, 286
occupational segregation, 287
part-time employment, 284–286
precarious work, 287
wage gap, 286
welfare regimes, employment and, 288–289
Labor Standards Law (Japan), 217
Law for Child Care (Japan), 217
Law for Child Care Leave (Japan), 217
Law for Temporary Workers (Japan), 217
Law on Part-Time Employment and Fixed-Term Contracts (Germany), 98
Law on Special Employment Support Measures for Single Mothers (Japan), 214–215
LICOs. See Low Income Cut-offs
Lindström, Ulla, 54
Loans for Single-Mother Families Program (Japan), 213
Lone elderly women. See also Elderly women; Lone mothers; Solo mothers; See also individual countries
crises as opportunities, 323–324
demography, 162
feminized poverty factors, 7–8
future development, 320–323
marital status, 282
policies for, 306–309
elderly, services for, 308–309
government money, 306–308
poverty of, 272–274, 279–280
gender differences, 274
market income and, 291
and welfare regimes, 276–278
Lone mothers, 232–233. See also Lone elderly women; Single mothers; Sole mothers; Solo mothers; See also individual entries
at work, 234–236
crises as opportunities, 323–324
demography and diversity, 155–156
and employment, 287
feminized poverty factors, 6–7
future development, 320–323
marital status, 281–282
nativity of, 283–284
poverty of, 267–272, 280–281
market income and, 289–291
and welfare regimes, 275–276
race/ethnicity, 282–283
social policy for, 304–306
cash benefits, 305–306
child support, 304–305
in-kind benefits, 306
unemployment rate of, 11
as vulnerable households, 66–67, 67–69
Long Term Care Insurance (LCTI) (Japan), 218–219
Long Term Health Insurance (Japan), 318
Low Income Cut-offs (LICOs), 154–155
Low-Income Measure (LIM), 155
Luxembourg Income Study (LIS), 19, 40, 43, 45, 47, 49, 52, 56, 203, 220, 269, 270, 272, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 281, 292, 293, 294, 310
Luxembourg Wealth Study (LWS), 247, 249
Male breadwinner/female carer model, 10, 12, 233, 307, 311
East and West Germany, differential impact in, 97–100
Median disposable income (MDI), 19, 267
Medicaid, 240, 249, 250
Medicare, 19, 249
Minimum-income guarantees, 309–310
social assistance, benefits of, 310
tax credits, 310
Minimum Income Protection Interim Dataset (SaMip), 310
Minimum vieillesse , 78, 86
Möller, Gustav, 54
MomsRising, 253
Movement of poor women (United States), 253
National Action Committee for the Status of Women (NAC), 153
National Child Benefit Supplement (NCBS) (Canada), 160
National Childcare Strategy (United Kingdom), 133
National Council of Welfare (Canada), 160
National Federation of Insurance Association (Japan), 219
National Italian Labour Force Survey (Italy), 182
National Labor Relations Board (United States), 238
National Medical Insurance System (Japan), 204
(p. 337 ) National Organization for Women (United States), 316, 320
National Survey of Family Income and Expenditure (Japan), 208, 220, 223
National Survey of Single-Mother Households (Japan), 209, 210–211
National Welfare Rights Organization (NWRO), 253
Nativity, 320
New Deal, 231
New Deal for Lone Parents, 132, 137, 140, 231
North American Free Trade Agreement, 319
Obama, Barack, 232, 240, 254, 302, 306
Occupational segregation, 144, 189–190, 237, 255, 287, 317
Old Age, Survivors’ and Disability Insurance (OASDI), 231, 238
Older Women’s League (OWL), 253
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 19
Paid work, 9, 14, 15, 17, 29, 30, 31, 43, 122, 125, 152, 163, 165, 167, 168, 180, 305, 306, 311
poverty and, 156–159
Part-Time Worker Law (Japan), 217
Part-Time Workers Directive (Britain), 302
Pearce, D., 3
Pension, 49–54, 78–80, 81, 204, 307–308
advantages and disadvantages of, 108–109
claims and poverty risks, 109–111
male norm as pension norm, 112–113
cutbacks in, 308, 322
first pillar pension system, 114
inequality, changing patterns of, 9, 33
occupational, 110–111, 128, 134, 143, 165, 302
private, 35, 165–166, 247, 307, 308
public, 8, 30, 218, 220, 221–224, 307
second pillar system, 114–115
survivors’, 109–110, 113, 188, 222
social security pension and survivors’ benefits, 165, 187–188
third pillar system, 114–115
Poland
lone mothers
poverty of, 4
Political resources, of women, 314–316
Poverty, 19
feminization of. See individual countries
standards of, 19, 155, 241, 257, 267, 272, 276, 280–281, 294–295
Precarious work, 12, 61, 62–64, 70, 85, 97, 152, 156, 158, 161, 166, 168, 182, 192, 236, 287, 306, 313, 314. See also Employment; Work
Prestation d’accueil du jeune enfant (PAJE), 86–87
Prestation spécifique dépendance (PSD), 82, 87
Public Assistance Law (Japan), 212
Public Citizen Health Resource Group (United States), 249
Quality of life, 18
Race, 7, 8, 66, 152, 154, 168, 233, 235, 241, 243, 246, 253, 282–283, 320. See also Ethnicity
Raffarin, Jean-Pierre, 75, 76
Reagan, Ronald, 9, 231, 253
Recommodification, 9
Registered Retirement Savings Plans (RRSPs) (Canada), 166
Retrenchment, 8, 9, 10, 34, 308, 309, 318
Revenu de solidarité active (RSA), 84–85, 87
Revenu minimum d’activité (RMA), 75–76, 87
Revenu minimum d’insertion (RMI), 64, 70–72, 87
and API, difference between, 74
Rich countries, poor women, 314. See also Women
Roosevelt, F. D., 323
Royal Commission on the Status of Women, 153
Royal, Ségolène, 77, 83
Sainsabury, D., 13, 14, 20, 28, 267, 269, 272, 274, 283, 289, 302, 319
Salaire minimum interprofessionnel de croissance (SMIC), 63, 69, 75, 84, 87
Sarkozy, Nicolas, 77, 83, 84
Sen, Amartya, 312
(p. 338 ) Single elderly women. See Elderly women; Lone elderly women
Single mothers. See also Lone mothers; Sole mothers; Solo mothers; See also individual countries
at work, 234–236
child support allowances, 39
crises as opportunities, 323–324
demography and diversity, 155–156
and employment, 287
feminized poverty factors, 6–7
future development, 320–323
maintenance allowances, 39
marital status, 281
nativity of, 282–283
poverty of, 267–271, 280–281
market income and, 289–290
and welfare regimes, 274–276
race/ethnicity, 282
social policy for, 304–306
cash benefits, 305–306
child support, 304–305
in-kind benefits, 306
social transfers and, 39
tax benefits, 39
unemployment and benefit cuts, 11, 39–43
as vulnerable households, 66–67, 67–69
Social care, 309
Social citizenship, 38
Social Democratic Party (Sweden), 319
Social Democratic Women’s Federation (Sweden), 54
Social deprivation, 17–19
Social exclusion, 18, 74, 96, 99, 122, 130, 185, 194, 311
Social functioning, 18
Social Insurance Agency (Japan), 222
Social justice, 309
Social policy, 8–10
Sole mothers, 135–140. See also Lone mother; Solo mothers
Solidarity, 20, 82, 187, 193, 194, 286, 287, 302
Solo mothers, 5–6, 38–49. See also Lone mothers; Single mothers; Sole mothers
child support allowances, 39
maintenance allowances, 39
social transfers and, 39
tax benefits, 39
unemployment and benefit cuts, 39–43
Soviet Union, former
lone mothers
poverty of, 4
Statistics Canada, 154, 155
Supplemental Security Income (SSI), 249
Sure Start program (United Kingdom), 133
Sweden, 28, 319
1990s, challenge of, 32–35
ATP scheme, 51–52
child care, 10, 302–303, 304
daddy month, 33, 55
elder care, 10
services for, 309
employment
full, 311, 312–313
gender gap in, 288
policies in, 10–11
lone elderly women
policies for, 308
poverty of, 272
lone mothers
advance maintenance policies, 305
cash benefits for, 305–306
immigrant, 12
poverty of, 4, 267
Moderate Party, 33
mothers’ employment
children’s age on, 43–45
number of children on, 45
policies and poverty, 31–32
poverty, prevention of, 316
reform policies, 54–55
limitations of, 55–56
single elderly women, 49–54
immigrant, 52–54
Social Democratic Party, 319
Social Democratic Women’s Federation, 54
social security in, 9
solo mothers
immigrant, 47–49
unemployment rate of, 47–48
income package of, 40–43
poverty rates of, 49
unemployment, 16, 312
labor movement, strength of, 302, 319
welfare regime, distinctive feature of, 29–32
Welfare Rights Movement, 319
welfare state outcomes, changing, 35–37
disposable income and redistributive capacity of policies, 36
poverty and low income, 36–37
(p. 339 )
welfare state regimes, changing
poverty and low income, 37
women, political resources of, 314
Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF), 231, 233, 239
Thatcher, Margaret, 9, 84, 317
Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology, 220
Underemployment, 11, 62, 63, 67, 96, 255, 283, 314. See also Employment; Unemployment; Work
Unemployment, 11, 284, 311, 312
Unionization, 31, 54, 55, 237, 286, 302
United Kingdom (UK), 121
“Gender Equality Duty”, 132
Childcare Tax Credit, 133
Cities Strategy, 138
Commission for Equality and Human Rights, 131
elderly, services for, 309
employment
full, 311
Employment Retention and Advancement Demonstration Project, 138
employment, financial support for, 134–135
Equal Opportunities Commission, 131
equal opportunity policies, 302
Home Responsibilities Protection, 142, 307–308
immigrant lone mothers, 12
incomes and poverty rates, 126–131
lone elderly women, 140–144
poverty of, 272
lone mothers
child support, 304
poverty of, 5, 267–269
Low Pay Commission, 134
National Childcare Strategy, 133
National Minimum Wage, 134
New Deal for Lone Parents, 132, 137, 140
Opportunity for All 2005, 132–133
Part-Time Workers Directive (2000), 133, 302
Pension Credit, 142
policy developments, 131–135
education, 132–133
paid work and family care work, combining, 133–134
poverty prevention in, 317
Social Care Institute for Excellence, 144
Social Exclusion Unit, 18
social security in, 9
sole mothers, 135–140
child poverty and, 135
employment and, 135–140
solo mothers, 5
Sure Start program, 133
welfare state, 17
women at work, 124–126
women in household and families, 122–124
women, political resources of, 315
United states (US)
child care, 233
United States (US), 17, 230
Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), 231, 232, 233, 239
American Association for Retired People (AARP), 253
child care, 237, 238, 256
child care in, 304
Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC), 10, 85, 239, 254, 290, 305, 310
Economic Policy Institute (EPI), 236
Employee Free Choice Act, 302
equal rights women’s movement, 252–253
family/workplace responsibilities, 233
feminized poverty, 243
gender gap in employment, 233–234, 288
government policies to employment and earnings
class strategies, 237–238
motherhood penalty, reducing, 238
government policies to increase employment and earnings
equal opportunity policies, 301
gender, targeting, 237
Great Society, 231
historical perspective, 230–233
immigrants, 244–246
benefits, missing, 245
education and employment, 244–245
poverty rates of, 245–246
income support for families
cash benefits, 238–239
in-kind benefits, 240
lone elderly women
policies for, 307
poverty of, 250–252
lone mothers, 234–236
child support, 304
divorced/separated, 243
(p. 340 )
never-married, 244
poverty of, 4, 241–244
decline in, 242–243
prevalence of, 240–241
unemployment rate of, 11
widowed, 243
lone older women
income and poverty of, 250–252
lone women in, 232
low-wage labor market, 236
Medicaid, 249
Medicare, 249
minimum-income guarantees, 310
motherhood penalty, 236–237
movement of poor women, 253
National Labor Relations Board, 238
National Organization for Women, 316, 320
New Deal, 231
North American Free Trade Agreement, 319
older women, 246–252
assets, 247–248
elder care, 250
employment, 246–247
income of, 246
public income transfers, 248–249
social isolation, 249–250
Older Women’s League (OWL), 253
political resources, 252–253
potential resources, 253–254
poverty prevention in, 316–319
pro-life women’s movement, 315
Public Citizen Health Resource Group, 249
single mothers, 231, 232, 234–236. See also Lone mothers; Sole mothers; Solo mothers
Social Security, 231, 238
social security, privatization of, 9–10
solo mothers, 5
Supplemental Security Income (SSI), 249
Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF), 231, 233, 239
unionization in, 302, 319–320
welfare state, 10
women, political resources of, 315–316
University of Michigan, 220
Unpaid work, 152, 163, 165, 167, 306
van der Leyen, Ursula, 99
Veil, Simone, 73
Villepin, Dominique de, 76
Welfare regimes, 13–14. See also individual countries
de-commodification scheme, 13–14
employment and, 288–289
gender equity and, 14
migrants’ social rights, ethnicity and, 13
types of, 13
women’s poverty and, 274–278
Welfare state, 309. See also individual countries
change, types of, 9
cutbacks, 9, 10, 11, 17, 231, 275, 313, 315, 322
demographic trends, 12–13
labor market conditions, 10–12
restructuring of, 9
retrenchment and, 9, 10, 34, 308, 309, 318
social policy, 8–10
theoretical perspectives, 13–16
Women. See also individual entries
as clients of the welfare, 15
at work, 124–126
consumers of welfare state services, 15
divorced/separated, 102, 113, 243
never-married, 101, 113, 243
policies to improve market outcomes for
child care, 302–304
minority or solidarity wage policies, 302
unionization, 302
political mobilization and power, 15–16
political resources of, 314–316
poverty of. See also individual countries
and welfare regime, 274–278
widowed, 101, 113, 243
Work. See also Employment; Underemployment; Unemployment
decent, 312, 313
family care, 133–134
paid, 9, 14, 15, 17, 29, 30, 31, 43, 122, 125, 133–134, 152, 156–159, 163, 165, 167, 168, 180, 305, 306, 311
part-time, 284–286
precarious, 11–12, 61, 62–64, 70, 85, 152, 156, 158, 161, 166, 168, 182, 192, 236, 287, 306, 313, 314
single mothers at, 234–236
unpaid, 152, 163, 165, 167, 306
Work/life balance, 133. See also Work
Workfare system, 305–306