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Global Migration Governance$
Global Migration Governance

Alexander Betts

Print publication date: 2011

Print ISBN-13: 9780199600458

Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: January 2011

DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199600458.001.0001

(p. 329 ) Index

Source:
Global Migration Governance
Publisher:
Oxford University Press
Abu Dhabi Process 19, 23, 94 Tab. 3.1, 95
Ackers, H. I. 146
Adams, Gerry 114–15
advanced passenger information (API) 126–7
African Development Bank 272
African Union (AU) 273
Convention for the Protection and Assistance of IDPs 162, 163, 235
Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa (1969) 191
Migration Policy Framework 272
response to UN Guiding Principles 218
Age UK (formerly Age Concern) 140
Agenda for Protection (2002), UN 198–9
air travel 117–18
environmental impact of 119
Al Barakaat, Somali money transmitter 244, 249–50
Albania 292
Aleinikoff, T. A. 15, 173
Algeria 201
Al-Qaeda 120, 244
Amnesty International 232
Amsterdam Treaty, Article IV (1999), EU 83, 84
Angola, adopting the UN Guiding Principles 213
Annan, Kofi 2, 219, 320
anti-racism laws 40
Asia Pacific Group (APG) on Money Laundering 246
Asian Development Bank 255
Asian-European Meeting (ASEM) and immigration policy 85
asylum 2, 9, 18, 95, 97–8, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 203–4, 216, 290, 292, 314
Amsterdam treaty, Article IV (1999), EU 83, 84
‘crisis’ 80, 197–8
policies 194, 196–7, 309
seekers 81, 83, 198, 205, 291, 292, 293, 302
system abuses 294, 296
‘asylum-migration nexus’ 197, 221
Atta, Mohamad 120
Australia:
climate change 175
ETA systems 127
Azerbaijan:
IDP population 211
irregular migration and IOM 92
Bakewell, O. 297
Bali Process 19, 94 Tab. 3.1, 95
Balkan IDPs 216
Balkan Stability Pact migration/asylum initiative (2001), EU 86
Ballard, R. 248, 258, 260
Bangladesh 201
remittances 256
Barcelona process, EU 85, 86
Barnett, J. 173
Barry, K. 269
Basch, L. G. 279
‘battle of the sexes’ game 314–15, 314 Fig. C. 1
Bauböck, R. 270, 277–8, 279
Baumann, Z. 148–9, 297
Beckett, Margaret 173
begging 229
Benson, M. 134
Berne Initiative (2001) 93, 95, 100
Betts, A. 98, 142, 221, 266, 282, 311
Bhagwati, J. 278
Bigo, D. 99
bilateralism, and high-skilled labour migration governance 61–2, 63, 64–6, 68, 71, 72, 75
Bin Laden, Osama 249
biodiversity 166
biometric passports 121, 123, 128
Black, R. 158
‘black box’ concept of nation states 20
Blue Card, EU 65
border controls 116, 117, 126, 298, 302, 310
EU 82, 84, 87, 290, 292, 293
externalizing 293
Borjas, G. 53
Bosnia-Herzegovina: 
irregular migration 87
peacekeeping forces creating sex markets 232
response to UN Guiding Principles 218
Boswell, C. 81, 293
Bracero programme, Mexico-US agreements 49–50
(p. 330 ) ‘brain drain’ 13, 60, 64, 65–6, 71, 73, 74, 203, 280
Brazil, trafficked domestic servants 226
Bretton Woods institutions 258
British Commonwealth, mutual recognition agreements (MRAs) 47
British Legion 140
Brookings Institution, Washington 214, 216, 222
‘Brookings Process’ 300
Brown, O. 160
Buchanan, A. 27
Budapest Process 19, 85, 93, 95, 97, 99
‘burden-sharing’, North–South relations 26, 194–5, 193, 310
Burma (Myanmar):
IDP population 211
Nargis cyclone 220
response to UN Guiding Principles 218
Burundi 273
Bush, George W. 244–5
Callaway, A. 318, 320
Canada 35, 42, 64
irregular migration tripartite response with Mexico and US 82
‘new transatlantic agenda’ with EU and US 84
capitalism, liberal/neoliberal 301
Carling, J. 252, 253
Cartagena Declaration (1984) 191
Castles, S. 154, 156, 158, 311, 318
Centre for Migration and Development, Princeton University 268
Cerna, L. 311
Chanda, R. 47
Chander, A. 269
Chang, H.-J. 51
Chaudhuri, S. 47
child soldiers 230–1
Chile 193
Chimni, B. S. 290
China:
and international travel 120
irregular migration governance 96
opposition to UN Guiding Principles 217–18
Chiswick, B. 88
Christian Aid 174
circular migration 13, 16, 41, 60, 64, 68, 175, 276, 294
EU Communication on (2007) 65–6
climate change 6, 7
Australia 175
Copenhagen talks (2009) 176
displacement and IOM 172
displacement and legal redress 167–8
displacement and UNHCR 171–2
Environment and Migration Alliance (CCEMA, 2008) 172
Fiji meeting (2008) 170
Intergovernmental Panel on (IPCC) 153, 155, 160
international human rights law 164–6
international refugee law 161–4
and International Security (2008), EU 174
and international travel 122–3
justice for Inuit peoples 168
security implications 173–5
and UNHCR 154
and World Wildlife Fund 172 see also environmental migration
‘cluster approach’ to refugees and IDPs 17, 214–16, 221, 310
CO2 emissions 119, 122, 166
Cohen, Roberta 216
collaboration problems, ‘suasion game’ 314, 315–17, 316 Fig. C. 2
Collard, S. 135, 136
Collyer, M. 270
Colombia:
child soldiers 230
IDP population 211
Law 387 on Internal Displacement 213
Colombo Process 19, 94 Tab. 3.1, 95, 100, 272
colonialism 298
Comfort Life Corporation 143
Communication on Circular Migration (2007), EU 65
Community of Independent States (CIS) 93
Convention 182, on the Worst Forms of Child Labour (1999), ILO 230
Convention Against Torture (1987), UN 165
Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime (2000), UN 93, 124–5, 225
Convention for the Protection and Assistance of IDPs, AU 162, 163, 235
Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of the Refugee Problems in Africa (1969), AU 191
Convention on Facilitation of International Maritime Traffic (1965) 117
Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), UNICEF 230, 233
Convention Plus (2003–5), UNHCR 199, 295
Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (1951), UN 12, 125, 158, 162–3, 164, 175, 189, 190–2, 194, 197, 198, 204, 224, 225, 233, 234, 236, 290, 294, 309
Conversations on the Global Governance of Migrants, ICMC 3
coordination/collaboration distinctions 309–10, 313–17
Coordination Dilemma 314–15, 314 Fig. C.1
Copenhagen talks on climate change (2009) 176
(p. 331 ) Core Principles for the Remittance Market in Latin America and the Caribbean,
IADB 256
Costa Rica 41
crime, transnational 7
crimes against humanity 220
criminal networks 84
Croatia 87
Cuba, and migrant health professionals 65
Cyclone Nargis, Burma (2008) 171
Darfur genocide 220
Dayton Peace Accords (1995) 232
De la Dehesa, R. 269
December 18 Organization 98
Declaration of Philadelphia (1944), ILO 37
Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work (1998), ILO 12, 37
Declaration on the Prevention of Organized Sex Tourism (1995), UNWTO 119
Declaration on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights of Migrant Workers (2007), ASEAN 272
decolonization 193, 290
Democratic Republic of Congo:
healthcare workers 64–5
IDP population 211
Deng, Francis 212, 213–14, 216–17, 219
Denmark and EU immigration policy 86–7
Department for International Development (DFID), UK 255, 258, 272
‘Remittance Country Partnerships’ 256
diasporas 2, 8, 9, 266–86, 311, 317
bilateral agreements on social security 271
civil and social rights 270–1
consular activities 270–1, 278
as constituency 277–9
definition 267
and dual citizenship 270
emigrant citizenship 278–9
engagement policies 267–8, 272–3, 278, 279–80, 281, 287, 288
and ethnic chauvinism 279
expatriate taxes 271
hometown associations 268–9, 270, 273, 281
and Indian and Filipina skilled labour 63
and local/national/international institutions 268–73
and long-distance nationalism 279
migration and development 266, 274, 275, 276, 277, 280, 281, 301
pension eligibility 280
politics 273–7
as resource 279–80
as stakeholders in the political community 277–8, 279
types of global governance 277
in UK 272
in US 272
diseases, communicable 7
Doha Round of trade talks 67
domestic workers 40
Filipina 48
human trafficking 227
Doyle, Michael 2
‘Doyle Report’ (2002) 2, 320
Drake, H. 135, 136
dual citizenship 270
Dublin Agreement, EU 292
Duffield, M. 298–9
Düvell, F. 310, 318, 320
Dwyer, P. 141, 146
East Timor conflict 202
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) 272
Economic Implications of Remittances and Migration (2006), World Bank 43
economic migrants 83, 204, 287, 288
Edwards, A. 163
Egypt, opposition to UN Guiding Principles 217
Eisenhower, Dwight D. 80
El-Hinnawi, E. 158
embeddedness and global migration governance 14–17
environmental/climate change terminology 157
environmental impact of air travel 119
environmental impact of lifestyle migration 145
environmental law, international 166–8
environmental migration 2, 9, 17, 153–88, 322
basic principles for management 173
conflict over essential resources 160
definitions 155, 157–8, 159
degradation and slow-onset disasters 160
displacement-triggering scenarios 159–61
hydro-meteorological disasters 159, 160–1
and international human rights law 15, 164–6
and international refugee law 161–4
island state displacement 160, 166
long-tem relocation 161
and non-refoulement principle 164, 165
and ‘persecution’ defined under Refugee Convention 162–3
planned evacuations 159
protection framework and responses 161, 175
and ‘refugee’ status 157–8
role of UNHCR 170–2
security implications 173–5
(p. 332 ) socio-economic reasons for displacement 156
soft/hard law principles 162
and status of IDPs 162 see also climate change
Eritrea:
‘healing tax’ 271
peacekeeping forces creating sex markets 232
ETA and biometric entry–exit systems 127–8
ethnic cleansing 220
Europe, ‘spontaneous migrants’ 80
European Convention on Human Rights 165
European Migrant Workers' Unions (EMWU) 44
European Union (EU) 18, 44, 279, 310, 315
Ad Hoc Asylum, Visa, External Borders, and Deportations 82
Amsterdam Treaty, Article IV (1999) 83, 84
Balkan Stability Pact (2001) migration/asylum initiative 86
Barcelona process 84, 86
bilateral agreements on social security 271
Blue Card 65
Border Assistant Mission (EUBAM) 87
border protection 82, 84, 87, 290, 292, 293
Centre for Information, Discussion & Exchange on the Crossing of Borders and Immigration (CIREFI) 83, 84
circular migration 65–6
Climate Change and International Security (2008) 174
Communication on Circular Migration (2007) 65
deportation policies 86
diaspora-led development projects 277
‘earmarking’ UNHCR donations 202
European Ministers for Development Cooperation 297
and the free movement of labour 70
Frontex agency 84, 92, 310
global approach to the governance of migration 19
‘guidelines for a community migration policy’ 82
High Level Working Group Asylum and Migration (HLWG) 83, 84, 86, 293, 295
integration of migration and asylum policy 293
and international travel 121
irregular migration governance 79, 80, 81, 82–7, 91, 96, 97, 99
Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) 82, 293
and lifestyle migration 139–41, 142, 147
Maastricht Treaty (1992) 82, 140, 141
migration-asylum nexus 295–6
migration and development partnerships 65
and the ‘migration hump’ 298
mutual recognition agreements (MRAs) 47
neighbourhood policy 294
‘new transatlantic agenda’ with Canada and US 84
Palma document (1989) 82
Payment Services Directive (PSD) 246–7
and PNR data 127
regulation of money transmission 246–7
Schengen Code 116
Seville Council (2002) 293–4, 295, 297
Strategic Committee for Immigration, Border and Asylum (SCIBA) 84
Third Money Laundering Directive 247
Trevi working group 82
visa procedures 84, 115
West Balkan summit (2000) 86
EURODAC, EU agency 310
Europol 84, 92
 
farm workers 40
Fiji climate change/security meeting (2008) 170
Filipino hometown associations (HTAs) 268
Financial Action Task Force (FATF) 244, 245–7, 250, 259
Asia Secretariat 246
as representative of the richest global economies 250
Special Recommendations on Terrorist Financing 245, 246, 247, 248
financial markets, international 7
‘financial war on terror’ 244–5, 249
Fitzgerald, D. 278
5+5 Dialogue 94 Tab. 3.1, 95, 272
forced labour 225 Fig. 9.1, 226 Tab. 9.1
foreign direct investment 251
‘4Rs’ initiative (2002) 300
Fouron, G. 278–9
Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992), UN 155
France 294
and irregular migration 80
remittances 257
Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organize Conventions (1948), ILO 37
Frontex, EU agency 84, 92, 310
G7 258
Paris Summit (1989) 244
G8 Sea Island Summit (2004) 254
GATS agreements see under World Trade Organization (WTO)
Gamlen, A. 311, 317
Gemenne, F. 154–5, 174
gender-based violence 232
Geneva Migration Group 95
(p. 333 ) genocide in Darfur 220
Georgia, response to UN Guiding Principles 218
Germany:
Advisory Council on Global Change (2007) 174
asylum seekers 292
and Budapest Process 85
irregular migration 80, 82
remittances 257
trade unions 44
Ghana 273
healthcare workers 65
remittances 256
Ghanaian hometown associations (HTAs) 268
Ghosh, Bimal 3
Glick Schiller, N. 278–9
Glivanos, I. 51
Global Code of Ethics for Tourism (1999), UNWTO 119
Global Commission on Global Governance 5
Global Commission on International Migration (GCIM, 2005) 2, 43, 97, 101, 138, 221, 273, 288, 320
Global Consultations on International Protection, UNHCR 198, 199
Global Environment Facility 170
Global Forum on Migration and Development (GFMD) 2, 13–14, 73, 255, 273, 307–8, 320, 322, 324
and high-skilled labour migration 62, 63, 67–8, 74, 75
high-skilled labour migration bilateralism 72
high-skilled labour migration multilateralism 66
Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria 64
global migration governance:
formal multilateral 322–3
and global public goods 24–5
and plurilateralism 323–6
politics 3–4, 6, 10, 19–23, 313–17
Regional Consultative Processes (RCPs) model 18–19, 308, 321–2, 324
Regional Economic Communities (RECs) 18, 324–5
trans-regionalism 17–19
global migration governance, normative implications of 3–4, 23–8, 318–20
efficiency 24–6
equity 26–7
legitimacy and six basic minimum standards 27
rights 27–8
security/economy/rights trade-off 318–20, 319 Fig. C. 3
Global Migration Group (GMG) 17, 273, 323–4
‘global mobility regimes’ 9, 12
Global Union Federation, UN 44
globalization:
and the growth in migration 1, 101, 292
neoliberal 302
Gonzalez-Gutierrez, C. 274–5
Great Depression 114
Great Lakes 216
Protocol on Internal Displacement 213
Guatemala 42
Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, UN 16–17, 211, 212–14, 215, 216, 217–18, 220–1, 222, 224, 233, 234–6
Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) 48
Gurría, Angel 44
Gustafson, P. 135
Guterres, António 171–2
Guyanese Hometown Associations (HTAs) 268–9
Hague Convention (1930) 112
Haiti earthquake (2010) 171
Hansen, Randall 3
Hanson, G. H. 81
‘hard’ law 17
Harvest of Shame, CBS documentary 50
Hatton, T. 64
hawala financial systems 244, 247–8, 261 n. 11
and the Madrid bombers 248
healthcare workers and high-skilled labour migration 41, 64–5
Helset, A. 141, 146–7
High-Level Dialogue on Migration and Development (2006), UN 2, 255, 288, 307, 322, 324
high-skilled labour migration 1, 8, 9, 26, 60–77, 311, 313
asymmetrical/symmetrical interdependence 62
and Global Forum on Migration and Development (GFMD) 62, 63, 66, 67–8, 72, 74, 75
healthcare workers 64–5
market liberalization 61
North-South partnerships 74
North-South partnerships and issue-linkage 71–2
as a private good 68–70, 72, 73, 74
South-North 73–4
and WTO, GATS Mode 4, 15, 62, 63, 66–7, 72
high-skilled labour migration governance: 
bilateral agreements and cooperation 61–2, 63, 64–6, 68, 71, 72, 75
bilateral agreements and issue-linkage 62
efficiency 72–3
and equity 73–4
excludability and rivalry 70
(p. 334 ) ‘facilitative multilateralism’ 72, 74
and interdependence theory 71
multilateral agreements and cooperation 62, 63, 66–8, 72, 73, 74, 75
and unilateralism 63–4, 68, 70–1, 74, 75
hijacking, airplane 117
HIV/AIDS 16, 228, 238
Hoffman Plastics case (2002) 38
Hollifield, J. 70, 312
holocaust 190
hometown associations (HTAs) 268–9, 270, 273, 281
Horiuchi, M. 93
Horn of Africa refugees 193
Hufbauer, G. C. 139
Human Development Report (2009), UNDP 43
human rights 2, 6, 9, 14, 288, 298, 310, 320
abuses 210, 296
international law 8, 15, 16, 17, 28, 38, 164–6, 212, 213, 324
links with a safe environment 167
and migrant workers 39–40
and the protection of refugees 190
human trafficking and smuggling 2, 8, 9, 40, 81, 83, 84, 87, 90, 95, 96, 110, 222, 224–41, 292–3, 299, 302, 310, 315, 320, 322
begging 229
causes and consequences 226–33
in child soldiers 230–1
in children 226–33
and conflict 229–30
in domestic servants 227
forced labour by form 225 Fig. 9.1
forced labour outcomes 226 Tab. 9.1
internal 225, 226
international institutional framework for protection 124–5, 233–9
and IOM 236, 237, 238
number of victims 225–6, 227, 230
Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea, and Air (2004),
UN 93
Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons (2003), UN 93, 224–5, 228, 231, 233–4, 235, 236, 239
relationship with migration 226
sex trafficking 226, 228–9
slavery and bonded labour 226, 227–8
and UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 236–7, 238, 239
and UNHCR 236, 237, 238, 239
Hungary, Status Law 275
identity/travel documents 84, 100
‘illegal’ migration  see irregular migration
India 45, 74
diaspora of skilled workers 63
IDP population 211
lifestyle migration to 135
Ministry of Overseas Affairs (MOIA) 66, 271
opposition to UN Guiding Principles 217
WTO GATS Mode 4 negotiations 46, 67
Indochina 193
Indonesia 35
informal network governance of global migration 321–2
institutions of global migration governance 3–4, 11–19, 309–13
Inter-Agency Remittances Task Force 255
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (2004) 164, 167
Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) 254, 255, 256, 273
Inter-Governmental Asia-Pacific Consultations on Refugees, Displaced Persons and Migrants 272
Intergovernmental Committee for European Migration (1952, ICEM) 42
Intergovernmental Consultations on Asylum and Immigration (1985, IGC) 18, 19, 91, 95, 97, 99, 100, 272
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 153, 155, 160
Internal Dialogue on Migration in West Africa (MIDWA) 19, 94 Tab. 3.1, 95
Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) 8, 9, 16–17, 210–23, 229, 310
associated problems and vulnerability 211–12
Balkans 216
Burma 220
‘cluster approach’ 17, 214–16, 221, 310
Dafur 220
definition of 211
global numbers 211
Great Lakes 216
and human rights abuse 210
partnerships with International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 215
protection 214, 312
and ‘soft law’ 213
southern Sudan 193
‘sovereignty as responsibility’ 219
UN Guiding Principles on 16–17, 159, 162, 170–1, 211, 212–14, 216, 217–18, 220–1, 222, 224, 233, 234–6
UN Secretary General's role 213–14, 216–17
International Administrative Law 6–7
International Air Transport Association (IATA) 126
International Catholic Migration Commission (ICMC) 3
(p. 335 ) International Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD) 85, 91, 92
Mediterranean Transit Migration programme 92
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) 12, 110, 111, 113, 117, 118, 121, 123, 126, 310, 313, 314, 320
and PNR data 127
International Codification Conference, League of Nations 112
International Convention on Population and Development (ICPD, 1944), Cairo 2
International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of all Migrant Workers and Their Families (1990), UN 12, 38–9, 40, 41, 51, 97, 221, 239, 307, 315, 322
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR, 1966), UN 98, 165
International Dialogue on Migration in Southern Africa (MIDSA) 19, 94 Tab. 3.1, 95
International Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) 169, 211
International Finance Corporation (IFC) 272
International Labour Organization (ILO) 8, 12–13, 16, 21, 36–7, 43, 45, 47, 55, 221, 238, 255, 273, 294, 308, 311, 319
bilateral agreements 37
Convention 182, on the Worst Forms of Child Labour (1999) 230
Declaration of Philadelphia (1944) 37
Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work (1998) 12, 37
definition of migrant workers 37
and environmental migration 170
Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organize Conventions 
(1948), ILO 37
International Symposium on Migration (1999) 92–3
and irregular migration 91, 92–3, 99
low-skilled labour migration and global standards 36–8, 39–41
‘MIGRANT’ unit 12
migrant licensing systems 40
Multilateral Framework on Labour Migration (2005) 12, 39–41, 54
and numbers of human trafficking victims 225–6
promoting bilateral and multilateral agreements 39
and remittances 254
Special Action Programme to Combat Forced Labour (SAP-FL) 237
treaties 12
and US government immigration policy 54
and wage equality 46–7
International Maritime Organization (IMO) 110, 111, 117
International Monetary Fund (IMF) 6, 8, 122, 299
International Organization for Migration (IOM) 3, 4, 8, 14, 16, 17, 19, 21, 23, 41–2, 92–3, 138, 169, 255, 294, 308, 320, 321, 325
Assisted Voluntary Return 125
and Azerbaijan irregular migration 92
call for more low-skilled migration 45
climate change displacement 172
environmental migration, definition 159
environmental migration governance 172
and human trafficking and smuggling 236, 237, 238
Information Programme 91–2
International Symposium on Migration (1999) 92–3
and irregular migration 82, 91–2, 94 Tab. 3.1, 95, 96, 99, 100
statute 41–2
World Migration Report (2008) 42
International Red Cross, and IDPs 215, 218
international retirement migration (IRM) 134–5, 137, 139, 146
to Mexico and Panama 139, 143, 145
Norway to Spain 141
private sector agencies 140–1
social and medical care 146–7
‘transnational elderly care’ 141 see also lifestyle migration
International Standards Organization (ISO) 7, 314
international tourism, and 9/11 attacks 120–1
international travel 1–2, 9, 12, 13, 109–32, 309, 320
advance passenger information (API) 126–7
air travel 117–18
border controls 116, 117
business and leisure 118–19
and climate change 122–3
development and economic growth 121–2
ETA and biometric entry–exit systems 127–8
facilitation vs. security 119–21
numbers of journeys 109
passenger name records (PNR) 126–7
passports 112–13, 118
politics of regulating 119–23
relationship with migration 110
sea travel 116–17
visas 113–16
WTO, GATS 4 and 123–4
International Union of Official Travel Organizations (IUOTO) 118
INTERPOL 86, 111, 113
Inuit peoples, and climate change justice 168
Iraq War 120
Irish Republican Army (IRA), and US visa controls 114–15
irregular (‘illegal’) migration 1, 9, 78–108, 197, 221, 302, 312, 313, 314
and the ‘asylum crisis’ 80
Bosnia-Herzegovina 87
Croatia 87
December 18 Organization 98
demonizing migrants 81
detention facilities 92
economic and political parameters 80, 81
enforcement agencies in non-EU countries 87
European ‘spontaneous migrants’ 80
France 80
Germany 80
and globalization 101
and human rights 84, 96, 97–8
‘illegal immigration networks’ 86
‘illegal immigration’ policy discourse 79–82
illegal/irregular distinctions 80–1
International Symposium on Migration (1999), IOL/IOM 92–3
Italy 80
linked with international terrorism 91
Migrant Rights International 98
Netherlands 78, 79, 82
and NGOs 78, 98
and non-refoulement principle 97–8
‘Operation Wetback’, US 88
Palestine 78, 85
Platform for International Cooperation on Undocumented Migrants (PICUM) 
98
Russia 78, 86
security concerns 79, 82
‘semantic networks’ 96
social conflict interpretation of 81
Turkey 92
UK 80
Ukraine as transit country 92
UN population division (1997) 78
US 49, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 88–9, 96, 97, 101
irregular migration, and the European Union (EU) 78, 80, 81, 82–7, 91, 96, 97, 99
action plans with Russia and Ukraine 86
Ad Hoc Group Asylum, Visa, External Borders, and Deportations 82
deportation policies 86
expanding the regime 84–7
‘guidelines for a community migration policy’ 82
integration of migration and asylum policy 293
regional governance 82–4
Seville Council (2002) 293–4, 295, 297
supranational policy 81
Tampere Conference (1999) 85
irregular migration governance 79–101, 94 Tab. 3.1
dynamics of regionalization process 96–7
‘four forms’ of collaboration 100
and ILO 91, 92–3, 99
and IOM 82, 91–2, 94 Tab. 3.1, 95, 96, 99, 100
and NAFTA 90, 99
and OECD 78, 81, 91
regulation and enforcement 80
‘soft law’ approaches 98
towards a global protection regime 97–8, 98 Tab. 3.2
and UN 93
US collaboration within the region and beyond 88–91
US-Mexico bilateral collaboration on 89–90
US tripartite response with Mexico and Canada 82
Israel 80
issue-linkage and inter-state bargaining 22, 71–2, 317
Italy 294
asylum  see kers 292
irregular migration 80
janitorial services, Southern California 52
Japan 35, 202
Jewish immigration to Palestine 79–80
Joppke, C. 279
jus sanguinis (ancestral lineage) principle 111
jus soli (birthplace) principle 111
Kälin, Walter 159, 162, 213–14, 217
Kampala Convention, African Union 162, 163, 235
Kapur, D. 251–2
Keely, C. 290
Kent, J. 158
Kenya 171, 201
trafficked domestic servants 227
Keohane, R. 27, 61–2, 71
Kiribati, climate change 173
‘Kiwi Expats Association’ 275
knowledge networks/transfer initiatives 272, 273
Koch-Schulte, J. J. 145
Korean community, London 269
Korpela, M. 139
Koser, K. 310, 318
Koslowski, R. 3, 9, 12, 309, 310, 320
Kosovo crisis 202
peacekeeping forces creating sex markets 232
response to UN Guiding Principles 218
Kuptsch, C. 311, 319
(p. 337 ) labour costs and migrants 276
labour force, worldwide 35
labour laws 15, 38, 54–5
labour markets:
effects of migrants on US 52–3
EU free movement 70
global 61, 307
liberalization and high-skilled labour migration 61
laissez-passer document 112–13
Larner, W. 275
League of Nations 110, 111–12, 113, 189
High Commissioner for Refugees (LNHCR) 13
International Codification Conference 112
Paris Conference on Passports and Customs Formalities (1920), League of Nations 113, 114
Second International Passport Conference (1926) 113
visa regulations 114, 115
Lebanon, Filipina domestic helpers 48
Levitt, P. 269
liberalism 50–1, 301, 319
Liberia, adopting the UN Guiding Principles 213
lifestyle migration 2, 9, 133–52, 311, 317
case for global governance 144–8
concept of 134–7
consulates 138
Costa del Sol, Spain 135, 140, 145
and counter-urbanization 135
cultural effects on host nations 145
driven by consumption rather than production 133, 136, 137
environmental impacts 145
and EU 139–41, 142, 147
‘extended tourists’ in Varanasi, India 135, 139
and Global Commission on International Migration (2005) 138
governance 133, 134, 137–42, 142–4
health and social care 140
and host nation economic development 144–5
and IOM 138
to Lake Chapala, Mexico 145
to Malaysia 143, 147
‘My Second Home’ program (MM2H) 143
Northern Europeans retiring to the Mediterranean 135
North–North movement 133, 136–7, 142, 317
private sector agencies 140–1, 142–3
role of estate agents 143
student mobility and lifestyle goals 137
and tax advantages 136
and UK 134, 135, 139
and US 134
and visas 138–9, 143
voting rights and political action 141 see also International Retirement Migration (IRM)
Lima, trafficked domestic servants 227
Lima Process 272
Lindley, A. 311, 317, 319
Loescher, G. 309, 316, 318, 320
Longino, C. 134
low-skilled labour migration 1, 9, 26, 34–59, 61, 289, 311, 312
bilateral agreements 48–9
definition of migrant workers 37
drive for lager numbers 56
driven by special interest groups 48–50, 56
economic approaches to governance 45
economic needs tests 46
GATS Mode 4 negotiations 46–8, 50, 56
global numbers 1, 34, 35, 35 Tab. 1.1, 36 Tab. 1.2, 36 Tab 1.3, 58
Gulf oil exporters 35
and high-skilled labour migration distinctions 60
illegal employment 37–8
ILO and global standards 36–8, 39–41
Indonesia and 35
Malaysia and 35
minimum wages 38
national labour laws 38
neo-liberalism vs. liberalism approaches 50–1
prospects for top-down governance 34, 51–4, 56
rights and numbers trade-off 34, 46–8, 50
rights-based approach to global governance 45, 48, 54–5
self-exploitation driving numbers 48
Singapore, ‘welcome-the-skilled and rotate-the-unskilled’ policy 34
tax paid vs. consumption of tax-supported services 53–4
and US labour laws 38
Lubbers, Ruud 199
Maastricht Treaty (1992) 82, 140, 141
McAdam, J. 310, 318
MacArthur Foundation 3
Madrid bombers 248
Malawi, and cooperation with UK government 64
Malaysia:
and low-skilled labour migration 35
lifestyle migration to 143, 147
Mali, caste-based slavery 227
Manila Process (1996) 93
Marshall Plan 300
(p. 338 ) Martin, P. L. 60, 298
Martin, S. 311, 318, 319, 320
Mattli, W. 314, 315
Mecca 112
Médecins sans Frontières 65
Mediterranean Transit Migration programme, ICMPD 92
Mercosur Specialized Migratory Forum 85, 93
Mexican diaspora 274–5
Mexican hometown associations (HTAs) 268
Mexico:
Bracero programme 49–50
development model based on emigration 55
international lifestyle and retirement to 143, 145
irregular migration to US 49, 80, 88, 298
irregular migration governance 82, 88–9, 96
‘Partnership for Prosperity’ with US 256
Plan Sur (2001) 90
remittances 243, 256–7
‘MIGRANT’, ILO 12
migrant networks 299
Migrant Rights International 98
migration:
circular 13, 16, 41, 60, 64, 65–6, 68, 175, 275, 294
defining the modern sovereign nation state 111
driving factors 287
economic 83, 204, 287, 288
economic, root causes 1950s–80s 289–90
and globalization 1, 101, 292
migration-asylum nexus 288, 294–6
migration and development 41, 42–3, 64, 71, 288, 297–8
diasporas 266, 274, 275, 276, 277, 280, 281, 301
EU partnerships 65
theory 276, 280
‘virtuous circle’ of 297
Migration and Development Initiative (2008), UNDP 54
Migration in an Interconnected World (2005), GCIM 43
Migration Information Programme, IOM 91–2
Migration Institute, University of Oxford 268
Migration Policy Framework, AU 272
military/peacekeeping forces and sexual exploitation and trafficking 231–3
Millennium Development Goals 301
Milner, J. 309, 316, 318, 320
money laundering 243, 244, 245, 246
MoneyGram 249
Morocco 294, 298
international retirement migration to 135
remittances 289
Mortreux, C. 173
Mozambique, child prostitution 232
MTM Dialogue 94 Tab. 3.1, 95
Mugabe, Robert 115
Multilateral Framework on Labour Migration (2005), ILO 12, 39–41, 54
multilateralism:
and global migration governance 11–14, 322–3
and high-skilled labour migration 62, 63, 66–8, 72, 74, 75
Myers, N. 154, 158, 174
Nansen, Fridtof 113
‘Nansen Passport’ 113
National Adaptation Programmes for Action, UNEP 170
nationality, and the sovereign nation state 111–12
nationality, dual 111
neo-colonialism 122
neoliberalism 50–1, 299, 301, 319
and capitalism 301
and globalization 288, 302
Nepal 45
response to UN Guiding Principles 218
Netherlands 202
irregular migration 78
‘new humanitarianism’ 298–9
‘new transatlantic agenda’, Canada, EU and US 85
New Zealand 275
Newland, K. 101
NGOs 8, 39, 64, 198, 199, 272
and irregular migration 78, 98
Niger, caste-based slavery 227
Nigeria 213
remittances 256
slavery 227
9/11 attacks 89, 90, 123, 126, 193, 244, 247
funding the attack 248, 249
and International tourism 120–1
non-refoulement principle 16, 97–8, 164, 165, 192–3, 195
and Tanzania 201
and US 201
Nordic Passport Union (1954) 115
North American Free Trade Organization (NAFTA) 298
irregular migration governance 90, 99
Security and Prosperity Partnerships (SPP) 90
and US lifestyle migration 138–9
North–South relations 17, 18, 26, 64, 65–6, 317
‘burden-sharing’ 26, 193, 194–5, 305
inequalities 302
issue-linkage and high-skilled labour migration partnerships 71–2
migration and development debate 60–1
(p. 339 ) and neoliberal globalization 288
partnerships and high-skilled labour migration 74
polarization 322
power asymmetry 315
remittances 250
Norway, remittances 250, 257
Nye, J. 60–1, 71
Ogata, Sadako 199
oil crisis (1973) 289–90
Oliver, C. 311
Operation Lifeline Sudan, UK 216
O'Reilly, K. 134, 146
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 43–4, 115
International Migration Outlook 2008 43
and irregular migration 80, 81, 91
visa regulations 80
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) 238
Orozco, M. 268
Østergaard-Nielsen, E. 269
Our Global Neighbourhood (1994), GCGG report 5
Oxfam International 273
Pakistan:
IDP population 211
trafficked domestic servants 227
Palermo Protocol (2000), UN 310
Palestine 78, 79
Palma Document (1989), EU 82
Panama:
National Bank 139
US retirement migration to 139, 143
Paris Conference on Passports and Customs Formalities (1920), League of Nations 113, 114
Passas, N. 248
passenger name records (PNR) 126–7
passports 12, 13, 112–13, 118, 121, 307, 308, 310
biometric 121, 123, 128
fraudulently altered 120
laissez-passer document 112–13
‘Nansen Passport’ 113
UN regulation 113
unionised 44
Payment Services Directive (PSD), EU 246–7
payroll taxes 47
Peace of Westphalia 15
Philippines 298
development model based on emigration 55
diaspora of skilled workers 63
migrant domestic helpers 48
Overseas Employment Agency (POEA) 48
remittances 289
‘Supermaid’ programme 48
Plan Sur (2001), Mexico 90
Platform for International Cooperation on Undocumented Migrants (PICUM) 98
Poland, trade unions 44
Portes, A. 274
private good(s), and high-skilled labour migration governance 68–70, 72, 73, 74, 313
Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea, and Air (2004), UN 93
Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict (2002) UN 230
Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons (2003), UN 93, 224–5, 228, 231, 233–4, 235, 236, 239
protracted refugee situations 193, 203, 204
public goods theory, global 5, 24–5, 62, 69, 312–13
Puebla Process 94 Tab. 3.1, 95–6, 99, 100, 101, 272
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) system 118
Rasmussen, Poul Nyrup 297
Recommended Measures for Security in Tourism (1991), UNWTO 119
Red Crescent Movement and IDPs 215
refugee protection regimes 2, 8, 9, 12, 13, 61, 69, 70, 84, 97–8, 101, 129, 150, 154, 155, 156, 158, 160, 165, 170, 189–209, 239, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 296, 302, 307, 309–10, 312, 316–17, 322
regime theory 5
Regional Consultative Mechanism (RCM) for Central America, Mexico and the US 19
Regional Consultative Processes (RCPs) model 18–19, 308, 320, 321–2, 324
Regional Economic Communities (RECs) 18, 324–5
remittances 2, 9, 13, 15, 41, 43, 45, 52, 55, 60, 71, 72, 242–65, 272, 273, 276, 277, 280, 281, 288, 289, 294, 311, 317, 319–20
alternative systems 247–8, 252
and anti-money laundering (AML) 243, 244, 245, 246
Balance of Payment data for developing countries 260
counter-productive taxing of transfers 250, 255
crime/security/terrorism agenda 242–3, 243–51, 257, 259
criminalization of small-scale transmission 247–8, 250
development policies, agendas and codes of practice 251–8, 253 Tab. 10.1, 259, 260, 287
(p. 340 ) as driver of financial services in developing countries 252
EU regulation of transmission 246–7
and Financial Action Task Force (FATF) 244, 245–7, 250, 259
financial regulation of 243–4, 246–7
and Global Forum for Migration and Development, UN 255
global knowledge industry 255
hawala systems 244, 247–8, 258 n. 11
and ILO 254
Inter-Agency Remittances Task Force 255
and Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) 254, 255
politics behind global governance of 247–51
price comparison websites 256–7
and regional development banks 254
significance compared with foreign aid 251–2
and ‘soft’ law 246
unregulated money/value transfer services 245
US AML/CFT agenda 243–4
US-Mexico transfers 243, 256–7
Wire Transfers 245
and World Bank 16, 254
Rentista Retirado  139
Report on International Migration (2008), UN 272
‘right to rule’ principle 27
Rio Declaration (1992) 167
Rodes García, J. 140
root causes of migration 2, 9, 287–306, 311
border control approaches 292, 302
conflict/interventionism 299–301
developmental approaches 291, 297–8
diasporas and development 301
economic, 1950s–80s 289–90
externalizing border controls 293
forced, 1980s–90s 290–1
governance 302–3
migration-asylum nexus 288, 294–6
‘migration hump’ 298
‘mixed flows’ and ‘migration management’ 291–4
‘new humanitarianism’ 298–9
notion of transforming societies 298–301
oil crisis (1973) 289–90
relief-development gap 291
resettlement-based approaches 292
‘virtuous circle’ of migration and development 297
Washington Consensus 299, 301
Rouse, R. 268
Rumania 292
Russia, and irregular migration 78, 86, 96
Russian Revolution 113
Rwandan genocide 196
Save the Children:
and begging 229
and trafficked domestic servants 227
Schengen Agreement (1985) 82, 115, 292
Schengen Code 116
Schengen Information System (SIS) 84
Scholte, J.-A. 6
Schreiwer, K. 140
sea travel 116–17
Second International Passport Conference (1926), League of Nations 113
Senegal ‘slave houses’ 229
Seville European Council (2002) 87, 293–4, 295, 297
and ACP negotiations on irregular migration 87
sex tourism 226
sex trafficking 226, 228–9
sexual exploitation by military and peacekeepers 231–3
sexual violence as war strategy 231
Sherman, R. 274
Sierra Leone, peacekeeping forces creating sex markets 232
Silk Road 112
Singapore ‘welcome-the-skilled and rotate-the-unskilled’ policy 34
Slaughter, A. M. 99, 100
slavery and bonded labour 226, 227–8
Smith, R. 275, 279
social security systems 39
Söderköping Process 93–5, 94 Tab. 3.1, 99, 272
‘soft law’ principles 16–17, 162, 213, 220, 221, 246, 310, 324
Somalia 196, 273, 300
IDP population 211
money transmitters 249
South Africa 41, 315
South–North relations 73–4, 299
Soviet Union collapse 291
Spain 294
and international travel 120
lifestyle migration to 145, 146–7
Special Action Programme to Combat Forced Labour (SAP-FL), ILO 237
Special Recommendations on Terrorist Financing, FATF 245, 246, 247, 248
Sri Lanka:
earthquake, 2005 171
IDP population 211
trafficked domestic servants 227
Steinbeck, John 49
Stern, Nicholas 154
Stockholm Declaration (1972) 167
Strategic Committee for Immigration, Border and Asylum (SCIBA), EU 84
Straubhaar, T. 81
(p. 341 ) ‘suasion game’ 314, 315–17, 316 Fig. C. 2
Sudan:
IDP population 211
Operation Lifeline, UN 216
opposition to UN Guiding Principles 217
‘Supermaid’ programme, Philippines 48
Sweden:
asylum see kers 292
irregular migration 95
Swiss banks 249
Tampere Conference (1999), EU 85, 295
Tanzania, non-refoulement principle 201
Taylor, J. E. 298
terrorism 7, 91, 159, 320 see also 9/11 attacks
Thailand 35, 41, 135
Tourism Bill of Rights and Tourist Code (1985), UNTWO 119
‘trade instead of migration’ 297
trade unions 39–40
Germany 44
Global Union Federation UNI 44
role of migrant worker 44–5
tripartite commissions 44
Truly, D. 136, 145
tsunami, 2004 171
Turista Pensionado  139
Turkey 298
IDP population 211
irregular migration 92, 96
Law on Compensation 213
remittances 289
Tuvalu and climate change 173
Uganda:
National Policy for Internally Displaced Persons 213, 218
refugees 193
UK:
cooperation with Malawi 64
Department for International Development (DFID), UK 255, 256, 258, 272
diaspora groups 272, 276
Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria 64
House of Lords 165
immigration policy 54
Institute of Public Policy Research 134
irregular migration 80
Jamaicans retuning home 135
remittances 256, 257
Ukraine 294
irregular migration 86, 92, 96
UN 1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 45, 55, 169–70, 307–8, 315, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322–3, 324
Agenda for Protection (2002) 198–9
Charter 15
and climate change security implications 173–4
Commission on Human Rights 212, 213
Convention Against Torture (1987) 165
Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime (2000) 93, 124–5, 225
Convention on the Protection and Rights of All Migrant Workers and Their Families (1990) 12, 38–9, 40, 41, 51, 97, 221, 239, 307, 315, 322
Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (1951) 12, 125, 158, 162–3, 164, 189, 190–2, 194, 197, 198, 204, 224, 233, 234, 236, 290, 294
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966) 98, 165
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) 273
Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) 273
Financing Facility for Remittances (2006) 256
Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992) 155
Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking (UN.GIFT) 238–9
Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement 16–17, 159, 162, 170–1, 211, 212–14, 215, 217–18, 220–1, 222, 224, 233, 234–6
High-Level Dialogue on Migration and Development (2006) 2, 255, 288, 307, 322, 324
High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges, and Change (2004) 220
Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) 214
International Commission for Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS) 219
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) 256, 273
International Law Commission (ILC) 110
irregular migration governance of 91, 93, 97, 98
migrant stock data 35, 35 Tab. 1.1
Migrant Workers Convention (1990) 221
Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) 169
Operation in Mozambique (ONUMOZ) 232
opposition to Guiding Principles on IDPs 217–18
Palermo Protocol (2000) 310
and passport regulation 113
population division (1997) irregular migration 78
Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea, and Air (2004) 93
(p. 342 ) Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict (2002) 230
Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons (2003) 93, 224–5, 228, 231, 233–4, 235, 236, 239
Public Administration Network (UNPAN) 93
Report on International Migration (UNGA, 2008) 272
‘Responsibility to Protect’ concept 216, 219–20, 222
Second International Conference on Assistance to refugees in Africa (1984,
ICARA II) 291
Secretary General's role in IDPs 213–14, 216–17
Special Representative on Migration and Development 13
and terrorism 159
UNHCR relationship 199–200, 206
and US immigration policy 54
Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (1963) 270
and wage equality 46–7
World Summit Outcome Document (2005) 217, 220
UNAIDS 16, 238
and environmental migration 170
UNCTAD (Conference on Trade and Development) 95
UNDP (Development Programme) 42–3, 118, 170, 237–8, 273, 277, 290
Human Development Report (2009) 43, 300
Migration and Development Initiative (2008) 54
UNESCO (Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization) 170, 238, 273
UNFPA (Population Fund) 43, 170
UNHCR 12, 16, 17, 21, 94 Tab. 3.1, 95, 189–209, 232, 290, 300, 309, 318, 320, 325
Agenda for Protection (2002) 198–9
budget and funding 201, 205
‘burden-sharing’ 26, 193, 194, 310
and climate change displacement 154
‘cluster approach’ 17, 214–16, 221, 310
Convention Plus 199, 295
conventions addressing human rights of irregular migration 97–8
‘earmarking’ 201–2
effectiveness 204–7
and environmental migration 170–2
ExCom effectiveness 200–1, 198, 206
Global Consultations on International Protection 198, 199
global governance of refugees 189–209
and human trafficking and smuggling 236, 237, 238, 239
and IDPs 170–1
and IOM Action Group on Migration and Asylum 95
irregular migration 99
migration-asylum nexus 294–5, 296
monopoly on information and expertise 194
non-political role 206–7
protracted refugee situations 204
refugee regimes and norms 192–5
refugee resettlement 203–4
relationship with wider UN system 199–200, 206
socialization processes 195
state interests and political processes 195–204
US influence on 202
UNICEF (International Children's Emergency Fund) 237, 238
Child Trafficking Research Hub 237
Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) 230, 234
and environmental migration 170
Innocenti Research Centre 237
UNODC (Office on Drugs and Crime) 93, 94 Tab. 3.1, 95, 125, 236, 236–7, 238, 239
and environmental migration 170
UNWTO (World Tourist Organization) 109, 110, 118–19, 122
Declaration on the Prevention of Organized Sex Tourism (1995) 119
Global Code of Ethics for Tourism (1999) 119
Recommended Measures for Security in Tourism (1991) 119
Tourism Bill of Rights and Tourist Code (1985) 119
Union Network International (UNI) Passport 44
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) 191
US 35, 64, 315, 323
Agency for International Development (USAID) 272
AML/CFT agenda 243–4
Arab and Muslim migrants 89
Aviation and Transport Security Act (2001) 126
Border Protection, Antiterrorism, and Illegal Immigration Control Bill (2006) 89
Chinese Exclusion act (1882) 88
collaboration within the region and beyond on irregular migration 89–91
Customs Service and PNR data 126–7
Department of Homeland Security (DHS) 89, 120, 121, 127
Department of Labour 50
diaspora groups 272, 276
‘earmarking’ UNHCR donations 201–2
(p. 343 ) Enhanced Border Security and Visa Reform Act (2002) 120
ETA systems 127–8
financial institutions and FATF Special Recommendations 246
foreign policy 202
human trafficking 228, 229
Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigration Responsibility Act (IIRIRA), 1996 88
immigration policy 54
Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA), 1986 88
influence with UNHCR 202
international retirement migration (IRM) to Panama, Mexico and Costa Rica 135–6, 137
irregular migration 49, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 88–9, 96, 97, 101
labour laws 38
labour market effects of migrants 52–3
Law Enforcement Support Centre (LESC), 1994 88
lifestyle migration 134, 135, 139
list of terror-supporting organizations 249
monitoring global financial flows 244
naturalization 111
‘new transatlantic agenda’, with Canada and EU 85
and non-refoulement principle 201
‘Operation Wetback’ 88
‘Partnership for Prosperity’ 256
Patriot Act 248
and refugee resettlement 203
and security implications of climate change 173–4
Supreme Court 38
visa controls 63, 114–15, 121, 138
Visitor and Immigrant Status Indicator Technology (US-VISIT) programme 120
and WTO GATS Mode 4 negotiations 47, 67
US–Mexico relationship: 
bilateral collaboration on irregular migration 89–90
Bracero programme 49–50
remittance transfers 243, 260
Van Hear, N. 311, 318
Vathi, Z. 270
Vega-Cánovas, G. 139
Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (1963), UN 138, 270
visas 12, 47, 61, 67, 135, 292
Amsterdam treaty, Article IV (1999), EU 83, 84
business/visitor 124
EU procedures 84, 115
‘GATS one-stop shops’ 47
H-1B, US 63
and Irish Republican Army (IRA) 114–15
and international travel 113–16
and irregular migration 80, 100
League of Nations regulations 114
and lifestyle migration 138–9, 147, 148
‘My Second Home’ program (MM2H) 143
Robert Mugabe ban 115
‘Silver Card’, US 138, 143
as tool of diplomacy 114–15
US controls 63, 114–15, 121, 138
Waiver Programme, US 115, 121
and WTO GATS Mode 4 47, 110
Vitorino, António 83
wages of migrant workers 38, 39, 46–7, 54–5
war crimes 220
‘War on Terror’ 204, 320
Washington Consensus 299, 301
Western Union 249
Westphalia Treaty (1648) 111
Woods, N. 322
work permit procedures 47
World Bank 6, 35, 255, 272, 273, 277, 298, 299, 301
call for more low-skilled migration 45, 52
conflict/interventionism 300–1
Country Assistance Programs 254
Economic Implications of Remittances and Migration (2006) 43
and environmental migration 170
Post-Conflict Unit (PCU) 300
and remittances 16, 254
World Customs Organization (WCO) 126
World Food Programme (WFP) and environmental migration 170
World Health Organization (WHO) 8, 170
World Summit Outcome Document (2005), UN 217, 220
World Wildlife Fund, and climate change 172
World Trade Organization (WTO) 6, 8, 15, 47, 55, 308, 319
GATS agreements 15, 323
GATS Modes 1–3 66
World Trade Organization (WTO) GATS Mode 4 56
and Doha Round of Trade talks 67
and high-skilled labour migration 15, 62, 63, 66–7, 74
and international travel 123–4
and low-skilled labour migration negotiations 50
migrant numbers vs. rights 46–8
and visas 47, 110
US/India negotiations 67
Yugoslavia, former 196, 291
Zimbabwe IDP population 211

Notes:

(11) The word ‘hawala’ has been increasingly used as shorthand for all informal value transfer systems. There is an important distinction made in literature on informal economies between illicit and licit informal trade—activity that does and does not infringe criminal law. Prior to 9/11, in most financial jurisdictions (exceptions are India and Pakistan, where hawala has been illegal for some time), a distinction was made by law enforcers between ‘white hawala’ (the use of the hawala system to make legitimate international transfers, e.g. migrant remittances and legitimate trade transfers) and ‘black hawala’ (the use of the system for transfers that are considered illegitimate in most jurisdictions, for example a part of narcotics trafficking or fraud). But after 9/11, hawala has been increasingly presented in the media and the financial and law enforcement worlds as, at best, particularly vulnerable to use for illegitimate purposes, and at worst, expressly designed for illegitimate purposes. See Jost and Sandhu (2000).