Physics

The subject of this book is the Casimir effect, i.e., a manifestation of zero-point oscillations of the quantum vacuum in the form of forces acting between closely spaced bodies. It is a purely quantum effect. There is no force acting between neutral bodies in classical electrodynamics. The Casimir effect has become an interdisciplinary subject. It plays an important role in various fields of physics such as condensed matter physics, quantum field theory, atomic and molecular physics, gravitation and cosmology, and mathematical physics. Most recently, the Casimir effect has been applied to nanotechnology and for obtaining constraints on the predictions of unification theories beyond the Standard Model. The book assembles together the field-theoretical foundations of this phenomenon, the application of the general theory to real materials, and a comprehensive description of all recently performed measurements of the Casimir force, including the comparison between experiment and theory. There is increasing interest in forces of vacuum origin. Numerous new results have been obtained during the last few years which are not reflected in the literature, but are very promising for fundamental science and nanotechnology. The book provides a source of information which presents a critical assessment of all of the main results and approaches contained in published journal papers. It also proposes new ideas which are not yet universally accepted but are finding increasing support from experiment.

This book provides an innovative and mathematically sound treatment of the foundations of analytical mechanics and the relation of classical mechanics to relativity and quantum theory. A distinguishing feature of the book is its integration of special relativity into teaching of classical mechanics. After a thorough review of the traditional theory, the book introduces extended Lagrangian and Hamiltonian methods that treat time as a transformable coordinate rather than the fixed parameter of Newtonian physics. Advanced topics such as covariant Langrangians and Hamiltonians, canonical transformations, and Hamilton-Jacobi methods are simplified by the use of this extended theory. And the definition of canonical transformation no longer excludes the Lorenz transformation of special relativity. This is also a book for those who study analytical mechanics to prepare for a critical exploration of quantum mechanics. Comparisons to quantum mechanics appear throughout the text. The extended Hamiltonian theory with time as a coordinate is compared to Dirac’s formalism of primary phase space constraints. The chapter on relativistic mechanics shows how to use covariant Hamiltonian theory to write the Klein-Gordon and Dirac equations. The chapter on Hamilton-Jacobi theory includes a discussion of the closely related Bohm hidden variable model of quantum mechanics. Classical mechanics itself is presented with an emphasis on methods, such as linear vector operators and dyadics, that will familiarise the student with similar techniques in quantum theory. Several of the current fundamental problems in theoretical physics, such as the development of quantum information technology and the problem of quantising the gravitational field, require a rethinking of the quantum-classical connection.

Progress in modern radio astronomy led to the discovery of space masers in the microwave range, and it became a powerful tool for studies of interstellar star-forming molecular clouds. Progress in observational astronomy, particularly with ground-based huge telescopes and the space-based Hubble Space Telescope, has led to recent discoveries of space lasers in the optical range. These operate in gas condensations in the vicinity of the mysterious star Eta Carinae (one of the most luminous and massive stars of our Galaxy). Both maser and laser effects, first demonstrated under laboratory conditions, have now been discovered to occur under natural conditions in space too. This book describes consistently the elements of laser science, astrophysical plasmas, modern astronomical observation techniques, and the fundamentals and properties of astrophysical lasers.

This book gives an account of the progress that has been made in the fields of atomic physics and laser spectroscopy during the last fifty years. The first five chapters prepare the foundations of atomic physics, classical electro-magnetism, and quantum mechanics, which are necessary for an understanding of the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with free atoms. The application of these concepts to processes involving the spontaneous emission of radiation is then developed in Chapters 6, 7, and 8, while stimulated emission and the properties of gas and tunable dye lasers form the subject matter of Chapters 9 to 14. The last four chapters are concerned with the physics and applications of atomic resonance fluorescence, optical double-resonance, optical pumping, and atomic beam magnetic resonance.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is an amazing technique that allies a versatile methodology (it allows the imaging of samples in liquid, vacuum or air) to imaging with unprecedented resolution. But it goes one step further than conventional microscopic techniques; it also allows us to make measurements of magnetic, electrical or mechanical properties of the widest possible range of samples, with nanometre resolution. This book will demystify AFM for the reader, making it easy to understand, and easy to use. Peter Eaton and Paul West share a common passion for atomic force microscopy. However, they have very different perspectives on the technique. Over the past 12 years Peter used AFMs as the focal point of his research in a variety of scientific projects from materials science to biology. Paul, on the other hand, is an instrument builder and has spent the past 25 years creating these microscopes for scientists and engineers. This insightful book covers the theory, practice and applications of atomic force microscopes and will serve as an introduction to AFM for scientists and engineers that want to learn about this powerful technique, and as a reference book for expert AFM users. Application examples from the physical, materials, and life sciences, nanotechnology and industry illustrate the many and varied capabilities of the technique.

This book offers a grounding in the field of coherent X-ray optics, which in the closing years of the 20th century experienced something of a renaissance with the availability of third-generation synchrotron sources. It begins with a treatment of the fundamentals of X-ray diffraction for both coherent and partially coherent radiation, together with the interactions of X-rays with matter. X-ray sources, optical elements, and detectors are then discussed, with an emphasis on their role in coherent X-ray optics. Various aspects of coherent X-ray imaging are then considered, including holography, interferometry, self imaging, phase contrast, and phase retrieval. The foundations of the new field of singular X-ray optics are examined, focusing on the topic of X-ray phase vortices. Most topics in the book are developed from first principles using a chain of logic which ultimately derives from the Maxwell equations, with numerous references to the contemporary and historical research literature.

X-ray diffraction is a major tool for the study of crystal structures and the characterization of crystal perfection. Since the discovery of X-ray diffraction by von Laue, Friedrich, and Knipping in 1912 two basic theories have been used to describe this diffraction. One is the approximate geometrical, or kinematical theory, applicable to small or highly imperfect crystals; it is used for the determination of crystal structures and the study of powders and polycrystalline materials. The other one is the rigorous dynamical theory, applicable to perfect or nearly perfect crystals and, for that reason, is the one used for the assessment of the structural properties of high technology materials. It has witnessed exciting developments since the advent of synchrotron radiation. This book provides an account of the dynamical theory of diffraction and of its applications. The first part serves as an introduction to the subject, presenting early developments, Ewald's theory of dispersion and the basic results of Laue's dynamical theory. This is followed in the second part by a detailed development of the diffraction and propagation properties of X-rays in perfect crystals, including the study of anomalous absorption, Pendellösung, grazing incidence diffraction (GID) and n-beam or multiple-beam diffraction. The third part constitutes an extension of the theory to the case of slightly and highly deformed crystals. The last part gives three applications of the theory: X-ray optics for synchrotron radiation, location of atoms at surfaces and interfaces and X-ray diffraction topography.

The study of electrons and holes confined to two, one, and even zero dimensions has uncovered a rich variety of new physics and applications. This book describes the interaction between these confined carriers and the optic and acoustic phonons within and around the confined regions. Phonons provide the principal channel of energy transfer between the carriers and their surroundings and also the main restriction to their room temperature mobility. However, they also have many other roles; they contribute, for example, an essential feature to the operation of the quantum cascade laser. Since their momenta at relevant energies are well matched to those of electrons, they can also be used to probe electronic properties such as the confinement width of two-dimensional (2-D) electron gases and the dispersion curve of quasiparticles in the fractional quantum Hall effect. The book describes both the physics of the electron-phonon interaction in the different confined systems and the experimental and theoretical techniques that have been used in its investigation. The experimental methods include optical and transport techniques as well as techniques in which phonons are used as the experimental probe. This book provides an up-to-date review of the physics and its significance in device performance.

This book details the studies of the properties of electronic and vibrational excitations in organic solids. It brings together most of the theory in this field together with many illustrations of experiments. There is a detailed treatment of many topics in uniform style, and the book also contains discussions of new phenomena. In different chapters, the theory of the Frenkel excitons, charge transfer excitons and polaritons, and their contribution to the optical properties of organic solids (bulk, superlattices, surfaces, nanostructures) will be found. The surface electronic excitations, optical biphonons, and Fermiresonance by polaritons are also discussed. The book presents the theory of hybrid Frenkel-Wannier-Mott excitons in nanostructures, the theory of polaritons in organic microcavities including hybrid microcavities, the new concept for LED, the effects of mixing of Frenkel and charge-transfer excitons, and the theory of excitons, and polaritons in one- and two-dimensional crystals. There are plenty of references to current research and to important historical work.

The counter-intuitive aspects of quantum physics have been illustrated for some time by thought experiments, from Einstein's photon box to Schrödinger's cat. These experiments have now become real, with single particles — electrons, atoms or photons — directly unveiling the weird features of the quantum. State superpositions, entanglement and complementarity define a novel quantum logic that can be harnessed for information processing, raising great hopes for applications. This book describes a class of such thought experiments made real. Juggling with atoms and photons confined in cavities, ions or cold atoms in traps, provides an incentive to shed a new light on the basic concepts of quantum physics. Measurement processes and decoherence at the quantum-classical boundary are highlighted.